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Basic Problems of Philosophy
Major Branches
1. metaphysics: theory of reality
2. creation of universe
sub-branch: philosophy of science
3. what will happen?
4. how much does it encompass?
5. if universe was created who or what did it?
sub-branch: philosophy of religion
6. what am I?; purely physical or something more?
sub-branch: philosophy of mind
Value Branches
1. ethics
a) are there absolute rights & wrongs?
b) why should I behave ethically?
2. political Philosophy: what form of govt. is most justifiable?
3. aesthetics: theory of art & beauty
4. epistemology: theory of knowledge
a) what is knowledge?
b) how do you know when you have it?
c)what are limits of knowledge
sub-branch: logic - study of good reasoning
Socrates: father of Philosophy
Thales (600 BC): everything based on water
Anaximenes (550 BC): everything based on air
Heraclitus (500 BC): everything based on fire
Anaxagoras: equally basic
Pythagoras: mathmetician; talked about atoms
Sophist: "wise person"; they named themselves; masters of deceitful reasoning; charged fees to teach
Alcibiades: outstanding, young, general; aristocrat; traitor; Socrates saved his life
400 Oligarchs: took over govt. & were overthrown; 30 left after
war became govt. again; overthrown again
3 responses
a) rejection of old values & traditions - Sophists
b) dogmatic defense of old ways - politicians, authorities
c) confusion
Greek religion: polytheistic- many gods
creation: Uranus (god of heaven) & Gaia (goddess of earth) kids
were Cronos (god of time) & Rhea kids were Zeus & Hera rest Cronos
ate kids were Apollo (god of sun & reason) & Athena (goddess if
wisdom)
Io-cow; Callisto-bear; Europa-bull; Ganymede-exchanged for winged horse; Arachne-spider
Socrates (469-399 BC): helped others find wisdom; intellectual midwife; his followers were Xenophon (426-354 BC)- historian; Plato (427-347 BC) - broad-shouldered wrestler, wrote Platonic Dialogues - conversation w/ Socrates
Oracle at Delphi was asked who's wisest by Socrates's friend Chaerophon & A was Socrates; reson - Socrates know's he's ignorant
Agora: Athenian marketplace
Socratic Method
1. pose Q & ask for A or help getting A
2. confident person gives A
3. by asking Q, Socrates shows A is wrong
4. another A is given
5. repeat #3; confusion grows
ideal 6. person Q'ed admits ignorance & decides to look for truth
common 6. anger & distraught at Socrates
Anytus: chief politician who instigated trial
Meletus: prosecutor; minor religious poet
423 BC "The Clouds" by Aristophenes: comic poet that satirizes Socrates
Hemlock killed Socrates: could have apologized, been jailed, exiled, but said you should honor me. Last Days of Socrates: "An unexamined life is not worth living." "The Crito": day before death he could have escaped "The Phaedo": day of death he sent loved ones away Socrates died martyr for his beliefs; his followers (all philosophers) were Plato (427-347 BC), followed by Aristotle (384-322 BC) followed by many others
Alexander the Great (356-323 BC): tutored by Aristotle; conquered Athens; think, reflect, Q, even when it hurts
logic: science of correct reasoning argument: reasoning put into words
Aristotle 1st wrote down rules for arguments 1. every argument has atleast 1 premise & conclusion premise: reasons supporting conclusion signals for conclusions: consequently; it follows that; in conclusion; so; therefore; finally, then; clearly, then; obviously, then; thus; hence signals for premises: yet, since, furthermore, because, for example, moreover, given that, my reasons are.. deductive argument: premises guarantee conclusion inductive argument: premises show conclusion is probably true; like always inductive
2 types of mistakes made in reasoning a) hasty induction: stereotyping b) inconsistency (deductive fallacy): holding contradicory beliefs
William of Occam: 13th century monk-logician; "do not multiply hypotheses beyond necessity."
Epistemology: theory of knowledge "to know that we know what we know & to know what we do not know is true knowledge." - Thoreau Renê Descartes: most famous philosopher that worked on epistemology
How do we learn about world? empiricism: view that our knowledge of world comes from reasoning about our experience - senses rationalism: view that we can have knowledge of world thru reason apart from experience; "a priori lnowledge" - knowledge before experience extreme rationalism: all of knowledge comes from mind alone moderate rationalism: some of knowledge comes from mind alone
Plato: experience gives no knowledge, only mind does; reality is perfect, beautiful, unchanging; founded 1st university - The Academy
Aristotle: studied at The Academy; his view was that we could find order, structure, beauty thru our experience Aristarchus: earth revolves around sun; let no 1 who doesn't know geometry in Academy
Archimedes: father of engineering
Alexander the Great: built 1st library; The Great Library in Alexandria Egypt
Constantine: emperor of Rome
Archishop Cyril (saint) of Alexandria: opposed library & its university ("Pagan") because polytheistic & magic involved often Hypatia ("Supreme One"): worked in library; died martyr; because of her death & destruction of library, Cyril became saint
"The Index": official list of banned books; "heresy" - minority religious interpretations frobidden; any "corrupting" books
Ptolemy: united Geocentric hypotheses w/ astrology astrology: view that heavenly bodies heavily influence human character & events in predictable ways astronomy: science that studies universe beyond earth's atomsphere
St. Thomas Aquinas (1222-1275): life's work was to reconcile Aristotle's writings w/ scripture & church teachings
Mistakes of Aristotle in Physics 1. math irrelevant to science 2. fixed # of heavenly bodies 3. wrong viewsin inertia & gravity 4. stars were perfect spheres
Martin Luther: 1st Protsestant followed by Jean Calvin
Jesuits: society of Jesus; intellectual defenders of church doctrine against Protestantism
Renaissance: "rebirth" of knowledge, culture
Johannes Guttenberg: invented printing press in West end of censorship
Copernicus: revived eliocentric theory in 1543, "Copernican revolution"; On the revolution of the heavenly bodies - published after his death
Galileo: Italian astronomer who provided experimental proof for Copernicus's view; inented telescope; tried by Inquisitors (church trials for heresy) in Rome
1632: "dialogue on 2 great world systems", Copernican vs. Aristotelian / Ptolemaic
Giordiano Bruno: pubicly supported Copernicus; never took anything back & burned at stake
Renê Descartes (1596-1650): French; "father of modern philosophy"; raised & educated by Jesuits; 1619 - 3 famous dreams - unify science & math; was Copernican; "Le Monde" (the world), "Meditations on philosophy" - attempt to clear way for real knowledge; 1st philosopher to begin w/ epistemology contributions to Math & science 1. basis of analytic geometry 2. proposed mechanical theory of heat 3. worked w/ magnetism 4. discovered some optical laws 5. did physiological experiments (vivisection)
Queen Christina of Sweden
what is knowledge, what can we know, what would count as knowledge?; beliefs that are 100% certain 2 possible kinds of knowledge 1. beliefs that need no proof (self-evident) as foundation of knowledge 2. beliefs that can be deduced from #1 "Method of doubt" is used to find foundation of knowledge
Possible Candidates for foundation of knowledge 1. belief that sense experience is reliable; fails argument from sensory illusion: if my senses fail me sometimes I can't be 100% sure 2. close-up vivid perceptions are reliable; fails argument from dreams or hallucinations: I don't know if I'm dreaming or not right now 3. been exposed to reality in order to dream or hallucinate shape, size, color; fails "Evil Genius Argument": very powerful being could be creating all my experiences 4. simple obvious beliefs 1+1=2 must be true; fails evil genius could fool me 5. "I think therefore I am"; can't be doubted I'm a mind
Egocentric Predicament: how can I know if anything outside my mind exists if all I can be aware of is inside my mind; "inside out" problem if you can't get out then solipsist - as far as I know only I exist; Descartes's view isn't solipsism
Cogito Ergo Sum!: I think therefore I am
Good HI (hypothetical induction) must have 1. have true premises 2. not suppress evidence 3. must be valid; conclusion must be best explanation
Steps out of E-C predicament 1. a) "Physical World Hypothesis" is more predictive, applicable & much more coherent than "Evil Genius" Hypothesis b) Solipsism Hypothesis is worse than Physical World Hypothesis 2. a) psychological: to show others besides me have experiences b) I know I'm conscious (have experiences) other individuals behave as I do in appropriate circumstances, resemble me physically. so other people are probably also conscious
Bishop Gosse: 4004 BC earth was created at 9am on Oct. 29
Russell: later said it's rational to believe things to extent they are probable
if reasoning is good we base knowledge on empiicism empiricism seems to be correct
Descartes's contributions to Philosophy 1. must begin w/ theory of knowledge 2. knowledge begins w/ Cogito argument from his failure we learned you can't insist on certainty after Cogito
Philosophy of Religion Judeo-Christian concept of God: all-seeing, all-knowing (omniscient), all-powerful (omnipotent), all-good, all-just, (omni benevolent), & creator of universe
does God exist? 3 philosophical positions 1. theism: God exists - 90% 2. atheism: God doesn't exist - 4% 3. agnosticism: can't know either way - 6%
"argument from agreement": since vast majority of people believe there's a God, it's true; bad argument; based on majority opinion
Motives for Theism 1. taught this way 2. answers our questions 3. gives us sense that we're here for reason 4. helps us understand why some good things happen 5. sense of comfort 6. death isn't final 7. moral concerns 8. behavior purposes 9. all-knowing
justification: which arguments are more logical; doesn't touch on faith faith: belief apart from evidence, arguments
Does faith conflict w/ science? Clarence Darrow (1857-1938): yes; famous criminal lawyer & philosopher; agnostic; "I don't pretend to know what other men are sure of"
Dayton, Tenn. 1925: "Scopes monkey trial" - John Scopes: taught evolution unlawfully
Theory of Evolution: all life forms have common origin; differences in organisms are due to natural selection & chance factors Charles Darwin: Origin of Species 1859
Darrow defended, Scopes & William Bryan prosecuted both thought science & religion were in conflict
Bishop Paley: most general version of argument from design for existence universe is just as intricate & orderly as watch; all watches have designers, so universe was designed by God, the Creator - IA-2 Darrow's opposition 1. too many imperfections that suggest chance rather than design 2. we don't know enough about universe to compare it w/ watch
A.C. Morrison: strongly religious scientist; "origin, continuation, & complexity of life is best explained by hypothesis that God brought it about" - HI 1. complexity of life is astonishing: emotions; hunan intelligence; aerodynamics of bird flights; migration; salmons, turtles, eels returning to birth sight to reproduce; other animal instincts 2. life originated in extremely difficult circumstances: How could life come from non-life? 3. life continued: conditions for life to continue must be perfect, temp., etc.; "not 1 chance in 1 mil. that life is accident Conclusion: God designed it all
criticisms Premise 1: is there another explanation?; Darrow - evolution; chimps 98.4% genetically similar to humans Premise 2: life couldn't have originated from non-life; it could biogenesis (1952) by Urey Miller experiments "Primordial Soup" Premise 3: conditions just right for continuation of life - can't be chance alone; why not?; lots of worlds - in our avg. galaxy there are 100 bil. stars; our sun is avg.; planetary formation is not unusual; atleast 100 bil. galaxies
How can theist respond to overall evidence for theory of evolution? 1. deny theory: "creationism" - everything as in Genesis 2. accept theory: "theistic evolution" - God uses evolution as tool of creation
Morrison's argument isn't strong; go back to more generalized version
Because of its complexity, universe designed by God: best explanation; HI
Citicism: "Big Bang Theory"; Le Maître - scientist & priest
Big Bang Theory: is there natural explanation for this "primordial atom"?; was it result of big crunch?; maybe oscilattng universe hypothesis is true; why?; design here?
Is God ultimate explanation for existence of everything?; does God have cause?; leaves doubts about nature of God; is there more than 1 creator?; why this design?
ex. of people who have had religious experiences: Buddha, Abraham, Moses, Joseph Smite, Mohammed, Joan of Arc
St. Ignaceus Spiritual Exercises: what could explain these experiences?; are they hoaxes?- some but not all; easy natural explanation?
What can explain religious experiences? 1. psychological: RE's are just hallucinations a) people under stress or subject to abnormal conditions; fasting, sleep depravation, etc.; epilepsy, schizophrenia?; drugs can apparently cause RE's - ex. Native Americans: use peyote, 'shrooms; Bhang; marijuana; Ancient Greeks: lots of wine w/ herbs - drug abusers sometimes report RE's shown in labs 2. Revelation: RE's are genuine experiences of the Divine a)changes peoples' lives dramatically; they don't doubt having been in contact w/ God b) high quality of those who have RE's c) many people (although minority) have them
Problem of Evil
B.C. Johnson: atheist
John Hick: Christian Philosopher; God can exist
Why does God allow evil?
evil are: Devil, Beelzebub, Lucifer, Old Nick
Problems: Why would God create such a being?; Why would he allow Satan to do evil? either God chooses not to stop him (original problem of evil still remains) or God can't stop him (not our concept of God; He is weak)
More basic explanation needed eq. a test of faith? see book of Job; God has all power
soul-making: quality of suffering builds character - Hick
"hedonistic paradise": could you be worthwhile, happy person if this is all you've ever known? -Hick no!; this would be worse than now; we'd be shallow, pleasure-seekers; need bad to appreciate good
Johnson says "Moral Urgency" argument: Why so much evil?; Why is suffering so unevenly distributed?
How can theist respond to lack of proof of God's existence?: turn to agnosticism or atheism; Pascal's wager - gambler's argument: if I believe that there is a God, I won't get punished, but if I don't believe & there is, I will go to hell. so, I'm better off believing in God.
death: "stench & worms"
approaches to inevitability of death 1. ignorance 2. Epicureanism: Epicurus - founded "hedonism" (live for pleasure); "eat, drink, & be merry for tomorrow we may die" 3. force & energy: suicide 4. weakness 5. regain faith
happiness, meaningful life, & moral progress require belief in God
Bertrand Russell (1872-1970): British; lifelong agnostic; Principia Mathematica- written w/ A.N. Whitehead on logic & math
proof of God's existence Spren Kienkegaard's response: 19th century Danish philosopher; emphasize faith; take "leap of faith"
Ethics, religion, & meaning of life
can non-believer find happiness, morality, & purpose in life? Leo Tolstoy - (1828-1910) no!; great Russian novelist & social reformer; czar (emperor) religious orthodoxy; supported govt.; landed aristocracy; rising middle class; serfs (slaves); War & Peace - 1st great novel; Anne Kranina - 2nd novel Levin & Kitty; excommunicated - thrown out - no rights; "Antichrist"; became pacifist - opposed to violence as means of settling disputes - corresponding w/ Ghandi; Martin Luther King also read Tolstoy
Simone De Beauvoir: became famous existentialist; 1st to write about philosophical feminism; 2nd Sex
John Paul Sartre (1905-1980): wrote 1st existentialist novel Navica
Vichy govt.: French puppet govt. for Nazis Sartre & de Beauvoir were in French underground vs. collaborators who helped Nazis
JPS wrote "The Flies": play w/ subversive message; "No exit" ; "The Wall" - short story; Being in Nothingness - major philosophical book ; awarded 1964 Nobel Peace Prize for Literature; not pacifist; "I trust no man who loves his enemies"
Existentialism is Humanism "Cogito" is beginning I exist, but what am I? What is my "essence" - nature, character? I'm not "object" a) artifact: thought of then created; predetermined; can't change themselves; essences precedes existence b) natural object: moss, stones, cauliflower: can't change themselves; determined; all objects have fixed natures I'm subject: center of conscious choice; our existence precedes our essence; we exist, then we define ourselves; we have freedom
JPS: "only atheistic existentialists are consistent" Why? If we were designed by God, we wouldn't be free, we'd be God's artifacts Where does this leave atheistic existentialist? anguish: burden of responsibility - Kierkegaard's ex. of Abraham abandonment: cause of anguish; on your own; no heavenly guidelines
we're condemned to be free
despair: we can't control everything; outcomes we want aren't guaranteed
What are implications for morality?
If no "values in heaven" are there values at all? Any rights or wrongs?
freedom: foundation of all values; absolute; no a priori or independent of human experience; stems from our humanity itself
humanism: all humans should be respected & treated as we would like to be
Denying freedom is wrong 1. cowards: duck responsibility; blame everyone else because they fear their own freedom freedom/responsibility are inseparable 2. scum: think only their freedom counts; other people are to be used or gotten out of the way
Russell: wasn't WWII pacifist; troublemaker secular outlook (belief in God) is necessary for happiness, meaningful life, & moral progress response: fear - foundation of religion, fear of death, hell, & unknown; "fear is parent of cruelty"; "principal enemy of moral progress in world" is religion
ex. of atrocities done for religion: witch hunts, executions; Crusades; other religious wars; human sacrifices; treatment of Indians; slavery was supported; Roman Inquisition - Galileo, persecution of scientists; Spanish Inquisition - 2,000 people killed in few yrs., Grand Inquisitor - Torquemada; KKK & other hate groups
how can theist respond to this?: selective history; religion has also done a lot of good - abolished slavery, lots of great art, architecture, & music
12-2-98 mind-body problem what is mind & how is it related to body?; what are we? we consist of "bodies" - physical structures & processes measurable & observable [limbs, organs (including brain), respiration, circulation, dignostism, electrochemical brain activity) we have minds: forms of awareness - thinking, emotions, dreams, perceptions, imagination, decisions, etc.
3 theories about nature & relationship of mind & body 1. materialism: we're entirely physical beings; mind is physical part of body 2. idealism: everything that exists including us is nonphysical mind or idea 3. dualism: we consist of physical bodies & nonphysical minds
Any probable mind-body theory will need good explanation of these facts 1. our minds & mental states could be physical, but we don't experience them as physical 2. our minds & bodies seem to affect each other at all times a) minds seem to cause changes in bodies b) body seems to cause changes in mind ex. #2 believing you are sick ª signs of physical illness; sadness ª crying, frowning, posture; anger ª red face, blood pressure, cursing, hitting; happiness ª smiling, laughing, relaxation; love ª brain chemistry changes, smiling; thoughts ª speech, decisions, actions
12-4-98
psychoneuroimmunology: study of association between attitudes & physical health
dopeamine: brain chemical associated w/ good feelings/pleasure
more ex. #2 positive attitudes ª better health, faster recovery; stress, anxiety, depression ª lowered immune responses, longer recovery, higher mortality; very strong belief ª getting better or dying; touching (comforting) ª relief, increased happiness; stroking pet ª increased calmness, happiness; stimulations by sense organs ª perceptions; taking drugs ª feeling high (euphoria); brain areas ª mental abilities; exercise ª feeling better
#1 explained: materialist you can be aware of something w/o being aware of all its properties; analogies: desk, lightning, etc.
12-7-98
most plausible & widely held version of dualism is "interactionistic dualism" a) all mind & its processes aren't physical unlike body & its processes b) mind & body interactions cause changes in each other mind can survive death of brain & body; there are disembodied minds; theists agreeing w/ this theory identify mind w/ soul - Socrates, René Descartes, C.J. Ducasse
1st major criticism of interactionist dualism: If mind & body were that different, they couldn't affect each other, so mind & body aren't different Descartes's response: interaction occurs in pineal gland; doesn't answer Q Ducasses's response (?-1969): American philosopher of religion & mind; interactionist dualist; physical nonphysical interaction would be mysterious, but not been shown to be impossible Materialists' response: ours is simpler
2nd major criticism of interactionist dualism: it seems impossible for disembodied minds; partial brain damage impairs mind, wouldn't death destroy mind Ducasse's response: communication model - mind uses brain to communicate
"soul puzzles": what is soul?; how do you get one? when do you get one? what happens to them after your body dies? what would it be like to be disembodied?
12-9-98
we can't imagine what it would be like to be disembodied disembodied minds haven't been shown to be impossible, just mysterious materialist: ours is simpler dualists' offense: it's not simpler if we have good evidence for disembodied minds
evidence for disembodied minds 1. sightings of ghosts; Society of Psychological Research: - England 1882 founded by professional people, professors, dr.'s scientists - believed in ghosts & tried to find best way to verify it; still Qable; Ducasse belonged 2. mediums: communications w/ dead; early supporter Arthur Conan Doyle, friend Harry Houdini (magician) saw all mediums were fakes spiritualism: believe this happens channelers: new name for mediums 3. out of body experiences or near death experiences: possible explanations; actual disembodied mind or hallucination?
Materialism: case for & against
12-11-98
For: a) has much easier time explaining close links between mental & bodily states b)overall, seems to be simpler theory than dualism Against: a) has harder time explaining fact that our mental states don't seem physical to us b) there's some evidence (not conclusive) for diembodied minds; if this evidence increases, materialism will be discredited
Is there experiment that would show materialism is probably true? Maybe, if we can make a conscious machine
Q's 1. Would such machine be impossible to make? 2. If we make one how will we know it's conscious? 3. Would making such machine prove materialism is true? No 4. If we can't do it, would it prove dualism to be true? No
"AI": artificial intelligence Evans supports it, quotes A.M. Turing - father of AI
Regarding #1 best objection is "Lady Lovelace's Objection": we program them, what comes out is us not them reply: maybe "learning machine" could be constructed parallel to us Turing's answer to #2 "imitation game"
These notes were taken from my Philosophy 001 class at PSU - Fayette
Branch w/ Dr. Evelyn Pluhar during the fall 1998 semester. We used the
J. R. Burr & M. Goldinger's Philosophy of Contemporary Issues book.
Worksheets handed out